Compare and Contrast JS Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto 4 (First Movement †Allegro) and Joseph Haydn’s London Symphony (No.104 First Movement) Essay Example

Compare and Contrast: JS Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto 4 (First Movement – Allegro) and Joseph Haydn’s London Symphony (No.104 First Movement) Paper The two music pieces chosen for this exercise are JS Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto 4 (First Movement – Allegro) and Joseph Haydn’s London Symphony (No.104 First Movement). These two pieces were chosen on account of the sharp differences between them in terms of style, texture, genre, period, etc. For example, Bach’s piece is written for a chamber orchestra of not more than 17 players. This was roughly the common size for the Baroque concerto format. Haydn’s piece, on the other hand was written to be performed by a much larger symphony orchestra comprising around 40 musicians. It is perhaps due to the limited resources at Bach’s disposal that constant invention in music was a matter of necessity than of will. In contrast, the bolder, simpler style of Haydn is typical of the Classical era. The following observation by Igor Stravinsky’s in his 1947 work Poetics of Music (1947) applies to both the works in question: â€Å"All music, whether it submits to the normal flow of time or whether it disassociates itself there from, establishes a particular relationship, a sort of counterpoint between the passing of time, the music’s own duration, and the material and technical means through which the music is made manifest† (p.32) The most obvious difference between the two pieces is their musical style. JS Bach’s music is synonymous with the Baroque style, with a high contrapuntal texture. The parallel melody lines are tightly and finely woven in Bach’s music. This is evident in the first allegro of Brandenburg Concerto 4. The Brandenburg Concertos contain an assortment of pieces with varying styles. Some were courtly dances like the first concerto, whereas some others invoke a poignant romance like the sixth concerto. Concerto 4 is full of zestfulness and vivacity, particularly the Allegro. It contains many of typical features of Bach’s music, namely, precisely constructed harmonies, harmonic progression, polyphony and intricate part writing. The six concertos as a whole were conceived as experimentation in form. Conventionally the concerto forms identified a solo lead instrument and the other instruments were assigned the status of accompaniments. Such an arrangement is mostly evident in the works of two eminent contemporaries of Bach – George Frideric Handel and Antonio Vivaldi. But unlike Handel or Vivaldi, the musical texture of Bach is such that the distinction between ‘main’ and ‘accompanying’ instruments is constantly challenged. (Kanny 2013) This is deduced from the fact that each melody line can exist on its own accord – they stand as perfectly whole compositions. When two such melodies were brought to harmony the music takes on an altogether new dimension. To express in common parlance the sum is much greater than the parts. The greatness of Bach lies in the fact that the parts are themselves complete and rich. This is very much the case in the Allegro of Brandenburg Concerto 4. Here, the flute and two Oboes work in counterpoint to the other, producing a rich and finely knit texture. The other feature of the Allegro in Brandenburg Concerto 4 is its beautifully crafted alternations of tempo. We will write a custom essay sample on Compare and Contrast: JS Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto 4 (First Movement – Allegro) and Joseph Haydn’s London Symphony (No.104 First Movement) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Compare and Contrast: JS Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto 4 (First Movement – Allegro) and Joseph Haydn’s London Symphony (No.104 First Movement) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Compare and Contrast: JS Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto 4 (First Movement – Allegro) and Joseph Haydn’s London Symphony (No.104 First Movement) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Joseph Haydn is the father of the Symphony. He popularized this form and made it his own. His more than 100 Symphonies composed over his lifetime stand testimony to this fact. The piece being perused for this comparative analysis is the first movement of his London Symphony (No.104). The instruments for which it is scored include two flutes, two clarinets in A, two bassoons, two horns in D and G. There are also two trumpets in D to go along with timpani and strings. The introduction begins with strings at a slow yet grandiose fashion, alternating between solemn and triumphant moods. Then the only theme of the movement is introduced. The strings play the dominant role in the theme, which is later transposed in A Major to the woodwinds. This is followed by a codetta. Later the theme is developed again with variation. The theme which was first expressed in D major is developed in B minor the second time around before reverting to D major during the recapitulation. Haydn was a c omposer who drew from dominant cultural streams of the day. Researchers have identified the theme in the first movement with the popular English hymn-tune (ex.4). First published in 1790, it is one â€Å"of the most successful English church music publications of the time: The Psalms of David for the use of Parish Churches, ‘music selected, adapted and composed by Edward Miller Mus. Doct’.6 (Kee, 2006) The London Symphony as a whole is considered one of best compositions by Joseph Haydn. On the day following its premiere, the Morning Chronicle made this observation about the technique involved in the first movement: â€Å"Until now the generally-held assumption has been that the first three movements are quotation-free. Indeed the well-known main theme of the first movement is often described as a ‘singing allegro’ devoid of other connotations.† (Kee, 2006). There are marked differences between the work by Bach and the one by Haydn. The monothematic composition of Haydn is quite common during the Classical era of which he was an integral part. In contrast, all the unique characteristics of the Baroque aesthetic were captured in Bach’s work. Further, Bach’s own unique innovations were introduced through the skilful presentation of diatonal harmony and bold choice of solo instruments (ex. Recorders). With regard to Bach’s piece in particular, a training in appreciating counterpoint is vital for appreciating the music. The Symphonies of Haydn stand in relief to the aesthetics of Bach, in that, counterpoint is only minimally employed. This gives simplicity and accessibility to the music at the cost of compromising on complexity and depth. Although a degree of objectivity could be brought to the evaluation of the two pieces, the manner of ‘listening’ is a factor too. As Ola Stockfelt notes in the work ‘Adequate Modes of Listening’ (1977): â€Å"Analysis of music in everyday listening situations must be based on listening adequate to the given situation. Such adequacy is not determined by the music style in and of itself, or by the genre within which the music style was created, or by the genre to which it primarily belongs today, but rather by the location of the music in the specific situation† (p.92)

Balance Wheel essays

Balance Wheel essays Before one of the most devastating wars in the history of the U.S., the American Civil War, the country was divided in to sections: North, South, and West. With the North and South having very different sectional beliefs on issues, the West would often have to position with one or the other depending on what they believed. For this reason, the West is often referred to the balance wheel during the Pre-Civil War. By not siding with the South, and siding with the North, or vice versa, it was able to act as a balance wheel to level things out. The West held the same opinions as the South on certain issues. The second National bank, territorial expansion, and cheaply priced land were some of these subjects. The South and the West did not want a second National bank for the same reasons. They would rather pay debt back to the state or local bank because they probably knew the people working there, and they were always in debt. Also, it would be easier to make unsecured loans. With the local or state banks, the rules could be bent more, as opposed to the stricter limitations of the National bank. The South favored territorial expansion because they needed more land, because cotton destroyed land. They also wanted more land for slavery, which would give them more power in the federal government. The West favored it because it because they wanted to bring more they wanted to bring more people out west, and more land to farm. The territorial expansion ties hand-in-hand with the next topic, cheaply priced lands. The Souther ners and Westerners were in debt because of the cost of farming and the lack of profit in return. With cheaply priced land, they would be a greater profit because they could afford more land to farm and grow cotton. Since cotton ruins the land, Southern growers could be able to move on to another plot of land, instead of trying to better the quality. ...

Argumentation with Rhetorical methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Argumentation with Rhetorical methods - Essay Example In an attempt, to have a clear understanding of this theme it is important to put into perspective various quandaries. First, considering if working in a dumpster is a solution for not working in a ‘sweatshop’ would be beneficial. Secondly, at the same time it is important to consider whether working in ‘sweatshops’ is a form of slave labor and lastly, if the improvement of ‘sweatshops’ would make them be accepted in society. Human rights organizations play a great role in giving shape in the matter of sweat shops. The organizations also ban governments from importing goods originating from factories with poor working conditions. Giving a shape to a problem is one thing and not giving a solution on it is a different thing. Talking out the government into stopping ‘sweatshops’ is possible, but stopping the people themselves from working in dangerous environments, without giving them an alternative is not possible. This is because individuals will take into slave labour as the only option. When dealing with this only two options take shape; make ‘sweatshops’ have favorable conditions for people to work in or let people face poverty due to their levels in society. As much as slave labor is inhuman, but with standards improvement of working conditions can lead to the acceptance of sweatshops. In an instance, where all ‘sweatshops’ are disguised as inhuman and shut down; and in another scenario, ‘sweatshops’ are provided with favorable working conditions, as a result, employment goes a notch higher. In the first scenario, poverty levels mostly in developing countries will by far increase. This is an interpretation of the fact that, even though, there are no poor working conditions, poor livelihoods are existent. In the second scenario, there will be good working conditions, in that the society will be alleviated out of poverty, and increased factory output from within the particular country. In this case study, I am

Leadership and Corporate Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leadership and Corporate Culture - Essay Example To achieve this, corporate leaders must possess certain influences and powers that will enable them shape the cultures for the betterment of the organization and without infringing on the rights of either. The first tool most managers use is the delegation of duties. By delegating duties to their juniors in a responsible manner, the managers empower the employees who in turn will go to greater lengths to maintain consistency (Ferrell, Fraedrich & Ferrell, 2011).   Another crucial aspect is employee mentorship by the corporate leaders, who instill social and professional values on the employees that are in line with the attainment of the organization’s goals. Ferrell, Fraedrich, and Ferrell (2011) state that the corporate leaders can put in place proper conflict resolution mechanisms and good communication network in their quest to transform the organization’s culture. Perhaps the last but equally important power that a corporate leader can use to influence and shape t he general culture of the organization is to cultivate a culture of trustworthiness within the environment and outside the given organization. This normally has an effect of motivating the employees and subsequently identifying the organization with the said culture of motivation (Ferrell, Fraedrich & Ferrell, 2011).   Important ethical leaders in and organization and their various roles Varieties of ethical leaders exist with each having more or less distinct roles in an organization setting. Ethical leadership entails the consistent practice and advocacy for normative actions that promote social values through engaging the employees in communication, teamwork, and decision-making. Top on the list are the decision makers who always strive to make well-informed and timely decisions about matters pertaining to the organization. This group of ethical leaders plays a strategic and proactive role within the organization (Ferrell, Fraedrich & Ferrell, 2011). There are the public relati ons leaders whose main role in the ethical sense is to ensure good and effective communication with all the stakeholders within the company. Since communication is important in solving problems, these leaders can also play a role in conflict resolution. In addition, the mentors play a major role in motivating their junior within the organization by organizing such initiatives as the corporate social responsibility (Ferrell, Fraedrich & Ferrell, 2011).   Illustration of the relations between ethical leaders and stakeholders According to Ferrell, Fraedrich, and Ferrell (2011), stakeholders contribute to, depend on, involve in, or feel the effect of the organizations activities and therefore their interests should form part of the organization’s agenda. These include the shareholders, customers, investors, and partners, whose needs, interests, and preferences can seem farfetched but in the end determines the culture exhibited by the concerned organization. Since both direct an d indirect stakeholders affect the organizations culture, all the ethical leaders within the company normally exhibit cordial relationship with all the stakeholders irrespective of the background in terms of contribution, geographic location, and size. This way, virtually every stakeholder will get higher percentage

Public Relations for Non-Profit Organization Essay

Public Relations for Non-Profit Organization - Essay Example Therefore the media should take at least six weeks before handing over the message to the media to be publicized, this timing normally include preparing, distribution and deciding on the method that is effective enough to reach the public. 1 On the effective methods to be applied, the media person may apply the following methods: Community Calendars and Public Service Announcements, under this, calendars are mainly used to promote respective events in the society these events are always of general interests for all non- profit organisations, for them to be listed in the medias schedule, they should be written earlier before the particular event is practiced. While the Public Service Announcements are normally easy to read since they require little rewriting. Theses announcements should be organized in a manner that will be able to make the audience retain the message. In case of an electronic media, the information should be typed and double spacing should be provided including the phonetic pronunciations for the unknown words, it should also indicate who will be conducting the event, the venue, the nature of the event, and the date of the event. One should consider the opinions of the editorial staff of the media house on the issue that would be used to create interest to the public. Under this case, if anyone comes up with an opposing view, then he is given an opportunity to rebut the issue. For the announcement to be productive it should therefore be brief, accurate and clear on the message that the practitioner intends to communicate to the public.2 The director of the association should therefore seek promotion of the association, to enable them generate a positive image through media coverage by the use of publications and broadcasts which will afterwards influence the public in financing the agency. As a director you should then ensure that the following strategies are applied in the association; Public relations- this is normally defined as, the process of correcting the reputation of the organisation to the targeted audiences with the current issues of the association. This normally involves the evaluation of public and personal opinions over a particular issue, formulation of procedures related to communication between the association and the audiences, and coordination of communication programs within and without the particular departments of the association. The use of public relations is, to enhance a positive media coverage thus increasing the awareness of the organisation to the public; therefore the Windwill Housing Association should use the following tactics in achieving this goal: Writing News Releases: This should involve framing of the issue which should be written with a journalistic angle, this should be used to inform the public about the financial problem under which its headline should be Attractive, thus grabbing the readers attention, its paragraphs should contain relevant information about the subject matter including the who, what, when, why and where questions this release should also be able to describe the history of the associatio

Differentiation made among poor readers into dyslexics

Differentiation made among poor readers into dyslexics Is dyslexia a big, expensive myth (Mills 2007)? Despite the popular acceptance of dyslexia as a type of learning disability, particularly as a persistent and significant form of reading difficulty, the debate surrounding its existence, definition, and diagnosis persists (Doyle 2003). For many years now, school systems around the world have developed and implemented strategies in order to address dyslexia because it affects a considerable percentage in the population. In the United Kingdom, one out of 10 people are considered dyslexic, 375,000 children (Hayes 2005) and in other studies, 5% of the childrens population (Ramus 2003). Dyslexia is widely thought to be a deficit that can be overcome with proper learning interventions; some very prominent personalities have been said to succeed over dyslexia: Hans Christian Andersen and Nelson Rockefeller, for instance. Scientific and academic discourse on dyslexia, which is derived from the Greek words dys meaning difficult and lexia meaning reading, is plagued by a definitional crisis (Snowling 2000; Ingram, Pianu and Welsh 2007). Until now, there is still no consensus on the definition of dyslexia. Moreover, issues on categorisation also face the dyslexia community (Lyon, Shaywitz, and Shaywitz 2003). This is perhaps because poor reading is influenced by a myriad of factors: socio-economic disadvantage, poor diet, poor living conditions, and others. This paper centralises on the controversy on whether or not a) it is possible to differentiate dyslexics from garden-variety poor readers and b) it is useful to make such a differentiation. The issue of differentiation has significant implications and until now, psychologists and academic writers are still debating over it. Treating dyslexia as a distinct entity seems logically sound. In every class, there are students who do very poorly in reading bu t exhibit higher ability in other competencies. There are also those who do poorly in reading and in generally all other competencies. In terms of diagnosis, some claim that differentiating dyslexics from poor readers will enable educators to development the most suitable interventions. Nonetheless, the definitional crisis over dyslexia makes it a dilemma to make that diagnosis. Labelling someone as dyslexic actually makes the assumption that existing literature and empirical data have generated more precise insight into what dyslexia is. The fact of the matter is experts have only agreed to disagree on the criteria by which dyslexia is diagnosed, including the types of intervention necessary to help children overcome their reading difficulties (Rice and Brooks 2004). The peril of differentiating dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers without any clear and conclusive parameters for diagnosis is that in the end, students with temporary reading difficulties may be branded dyslexics needlessly and students who are in genuine danger may not be getting the appropriate learning interventions they need. Due to the unstable and inconsistent definitions of dyslexia, some academic writers have questioned whether the disorder really exists. Some people view dyslexia as a social and emotional construct (Elliott 2005, p. 485) and politicians claim the impairment as a fictional malady (Hayes 2005, p. 1) to suggest that dyslexia is an artificial disorder concocted by the school system to promote their interests or to hide weaknesses in language instruction. Some have even claimed that dyslexia has a class bias: that it is the middle-class way of covering up intellectual weakness. Despite these allegations, the dyslexia movement worldwide has gained wide acceptance and scientific endeavours, which although inconclusive have provided greater insight into how this impairment can be overcome by children and adults. This paper explored recent literature on dyslexia, its definitions, causes, and critically discussed the issue of differentiation between dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers, how such a difference could be diagnosed, and its implications. The paper concludes that while there are proposed methods of evaluation, there remains no conclusive means of differentiating dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers. 1 Dyslexia: definitions and causes 1.1 The reading process In order to critically examine dyslexia, models of the reading process need to be reviewed. There have been two predominant theoretical models to answer the questions: how do children read? and how do they learn how to read? (Harrison 2000, p. 35). Kenneth Goodman (1970, as cited in Harrison 2000) explained that reading was a selective process which requires children to use minimal language cues but maximum contextual information. In what he calls the psycholinguistic guessing game, Goodman argued that the objective of reading is not word or letter recognition but to make sense of it the construction of meaning. Recent studies have shown the fluent reading requires a fairly complete and rapid visual processing of text while hypothesising or guessing as Goodman (1970) suggested has a small role to play in word recognition. The most widely accepted model of reading among experts and psychologists is the interactive model which states that the reading process is largely supportive of the bottom-up model as well as the input of top-down processes when required (Harrison 2000). This means that in order for individuals to read fluently, what occurs is automatic, rapid, and context-free word recognition having a fixation duration dependent on the relative word frequency of separate words. Stanovich (1980) attempted to incorporate what is known about skilled and unskilled reading into the interactive-compensatory model. A key concept of this model of reading is that a process at any level can compensate for deficiencies at any other level (p. 36). Stanovichs model was a response to both bottom-up models and top-down models which had their own problems. One of the problems for the top-down model is that for many texts, the reader has littlele knowledge of the topic and cannot generate predictions. While the top-down models may explain beginning reading, with slow rates of word recognition, they do not accurately describe skilled reading behavior. Stanovich (1980) argued that good readers recognised words rapidly because their recognition was automatic. It was poor readers, by contrast, who needed to make the greatest use of context in order to facilitate word recognition, and they did so at the expense of needing to devote extra time to this part of the processes. The o bvious implication of this model is that accurate, rapid word recognition is really important in fluent reading. 1.2 Defining Dyslexia Dyslexia is difficult to define. Although there have been several definitions introduced since its inception, experts have relied on identifying exclusionary and inclusionary characteristics to define who has dyslexia (Rice and Brooks 2004). Fletcher and Lyon (2008) offered three primary reasons why dyslexia is hard to define. First, dyslexia is unobservable construct meaning that attempts to measure it are imperfect and people suffering from the disorder cannot objectively report it. Second, dyslexia is dimensional, meaning that there are varying degrees to which individuals may experience difficulty, from minor, severe, and even in-between. Third, what characteristics to include and what to exclude have been a site for great disagreement among practitioners and psychologists. Nevertheless, common points in several definitions can be seen are elaborated in this paper. A specific learning disability Defining dyslexia as one disorder among a whole umbrella of learning disabilities (LD) has been criticised (Shaywitz, Morris and Shaywitz 2003; Snowling 2000). Studies have shown that among all learning disabilities, reading disability is the most prevalent, affecting 80% of people diagnosed with learning disabilities. In the past, LD encompassed a broad selection of difficulties experienced by children and adults in several competencies: reading, listening, writing, mathematics, and speaking. Dyslexia is now defined as a specific learning disability (Shaywitz, Morris, and Shaywitz 2003, p. 2). Some definitions on dyslexia describe the different areas impaired. The British Association of Dyslexia (2010) defines dyslexia as a specific learning difficulty which mainly affects the development of literacy and language related skills wherein difficulties may experienced in rapid naming, working memory, phonological processing, processing speed, and other skills. The definition also elaborates that dyslexia may occur among people who are of normal or average intelligence. Shaywitz, Morris, and Shaywitz (2003) explained that among the indicators of dyslexia may be poor spelling, inaccurate word recognition, and poor decoding abilities. The National Centre for Learning Disabilities treats dyslexia as a language processing disorder which may impair reading, writing, spelling, and speaking. Dyslexia Scotland (2010) defined dyslexia as a specific leaning difficulty affecting almost 10% of the population. Dyslexics are said to experience difficulty in reading, spelling, writing, and mathematics. It explained that dyslexia occurs as a consequence of poor short-term memory; hence, dyslexics do poorly in learning abilities because they are unable to maintain the sequencing of numbers, words, or simple instructions. The Miles Dyslexia Centre (2010) defined dyslexia as a combination of abilities and difficulties which affect the learning process in one or more of reading, spelling, writing and sometimes numeracy/language (n.p.). Dyslexics have weaknesses in the following areas: memory, processing speed, short-term memory, visual perception, auditory perception, spoken language, and motor skills. Nevertheless, their definition of dyslexia also reiterates that in place of such weaknesses, dyslexics are gifted with creative or oral skills and that the impairment occurs regardless of socioeconomic or linguistic background. In addition, the National Strategy for Improving Adult Literacy and Numeracy Skills point out that dyslexia is the result of poor phonological processing and poor short-term memory. Hence, dyslexics often struggle with following instructions, copying notes from the board, and difficulty in reading (Department for Education and Skills 2004). The Dyslexia Institute (2002) also outlined some of the shortcomings of dyslexic individuals, such as: 1) difficulty in processing real-time information due to poor short-term memory or working memory, 2) problems in the phonological process which make them struggle in associating letters to sounds, and 3) problems in visual processing. A neurobiological dysfunction Many definitions focus on the neurobiological origins of dyslexia (Shaywitz, Morris, and Shaywitz 2003; Nicolson and Fawcett 2005). Dyslexia is seen not as a consequence of impaired vision or poor intelligence, but as a neurological disorder which has caused brains of individuals to interpret and process information in a different manner (National Centre for Learning Disabilities 2007). The National Institute of Health (2008) also viewed dyslexia as a problem with the brains ability to recognise and process symbols which may affect childrens capacity to separate sounds in spoken words or in rhyming skills which are fundamental in the reading process. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS 2010) indicates that dyslexics experience difficulties with writing, phonological processing and rapid visual-verbal responding. It defined dyslexia as a brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a persons ability to read. These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected of them despite having normal intelligence (NINDS 2010, n.p.). While the effects of dyslexia vary, the most common characteristics among dyslexics are said to include phonological processing, spelling, and rapid verbal-visual response. Dyslexia is also heritable and recent studies have pointed to genes which make individuals predisposed to the learning disorder. A phonological deficit Secondary to the biological basis of dyslexia is that it is the consequence of a phonological deficit. The phonological deficit hypothesis originated from Pringle Morgan, considered to be the father of dyslexia (Snowling 2001). According to this hypothesis, reading entails the segmentation of texts into the smallest units of language called graphemes. Graphemes are then converted to phonemes which then become then complete sound of a word. For this to take place, the reader needs to assemble and address the phonology of a word. Dyslexics have difficulty in phonemic representations and phonemic recall due to poor short-term memory and other weaknesses in brain mapping. The International Dyslexia Association (IDA 2008) describes dyslexia a language-based type of learning disorder. Dyslexics experience difficulty in developing fluent single-word decoding skills. Furthermore, Fletcher et al. (2002, as cited in Rice and Brooks 2004) supported the notion that dyslexia indicates a problem with phonological processing. Accordingly, children who suffer from dyslexia are identified when they appear a deficit in the skills of words recognition which is associated with rapid naming and phonological memory. In addition, Snowling (2001) considered the importance of phonological processing as one of the etiology of dyslexia. Therefore, this definition focuses on the issues with word-decoding more than reading comprehension, which are controversial and critical point to distinguish between children who have specific difficulties in reading and those who have more problems and weaknesses in language. Finally, this definition is clear by clarifying that dyslexia includes some difficulties in spelling and other writing skills. Snowling (2001) attributes dyslexia to weaknesses in language that affect the development of reading and spelling with dyslexic people. The phenomenon of weakness in language do not affect the reading directly, but also affect the development of the spoken language, which is the basic foundation for learning to read. Snowling (2009) then defined dyslexia as: A specific form of language impairment that affects the way in which the brain encodes the phonological features of spoken words. The core deficit is in phonological processing and stems from poorly specified phonological representations. Dyslexia specifically affects the development of reading and spelling skills but its effects can be modified through development leading to a variety of behavioural manifestations (pp. 213-214). This definition stresses the importance of focusing on the ability to read text not only accurately, but also rapidly and with the importance of proper expression. The acute shortage in the development of fluent reading is characteristic of dyslexia, which continues into adulthood, even if accuracy evolved. Therefore, the importance of reading fluently must be encouraged dyslexic children who read accurately but not fluently will pass unnoticed. Fletcher et.al. (2002, as cited in Rice and Brooks 2004) agreed that most students with dyslexia frequently encounter problems in reading comprehension because of the difficulties in the accuracy and fluency of word recognition. They may also suffer from these problems even if the skills of the accuracy and fluency were improved because of weaknesses in vocabulary as well as in language abilities. One of the most popular and widely-used definition dates back to 1928 and developed by The World Federation of Neurology: A disorder manifested by difficulty learning to read, despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence and sociocultural opportunity. It is dependent upon fundamental cognitive disabilities which are frequently constitutional in origin (as cited in Gustafson and Samuelsson 1999, p. 127). This definition is the basis of what is known as the discrepancy-based view of dyslexia (Fletcher et al. 2007). This definition assumes dyslexia as an unexpected difficulty in reading. By unexpected, dyslexia is taken to occur as a reading disorder in a child or an adult who despite having all the various factors crucial to developing fluent reading (motivation, intelligence, good instruction) still struggles with reading (Shaywitz 1998). More challenging has been the question of how to operationalise the unexpected nature of dyslexia. This has been achieved by allowing a certain amount of discrepancy between a childs level of intelligence (evaluated through an IQ test) and reading ability. Some schools use the absolute discrepancy involving 1 to 1.5 standard deviations across scores while others use the regression-based model of ascertaining the correlation between reading achievement and IQ. The discrepancy-based definition of dyslexia provides the basis for the categorisation of dyslexics with garden-variety poor readers. Genuine dyslexics are those who despite having average intelligence struggle with reading while poor readers are those who struggle with reading because of intellectual weakness and other demographic and sociocultural factors. The phonological deficit is considered as the cognitive basis to dyslexia (Snowling 2001; Vellutino et al. 2004). Nonetheless, this deficit is also viewed as secondary only to other deficits such auditory temporal processing deficits (Tallal 1980) or low-level visual deficit induced by inhibitions in the magnocellular system (Livingstone, Rosen, Drislane, and Galaburda 1991). 1.3 Visual Processing in Dyslexia The most dominant etiological explanation for dyslexia had been that it was phonological deficit and not the result of problems in visual functioning or processing. However, in the 1980s, several researchers undertook systematic studies and found that many dyslexic readers experienced visual deficits. For instance, Getman (1985, as cited in Ramus 2003) attributed problems in visual tracking to oculomotor deficiencies as well as a supposed deficit in the transient visual system. This theory has been discredited by several controlled experiments but the hypothesised effect of the transient visual system gained empirical interest. While proponents of theories attributing dyslexia to visual deficits do not exclude other explanations, the relationship between dyslexia and problems in visual processing has spurred academic interest in the subject. The main theory behind such systematic reports indicates that dyslexia is caused by a deficit in the transient system or the magnocellular system in the visual pathway. The magnocellular-deficit theory explains that two parallel systems lead the visual pathway from the eyes to the visual cortex: the magno- (large) and parvo- (small) cellular systems. The larger system consisting of large cells possesses high conduction velocity as well as sensitivity to rapid movement and stimulus changes. The smaller system is sensitive to fine spatial details and color. Dyslexia occurs among people which have magnocellular systems that have reduced sensitivity (Lovegrove, Garzia, and Nicholson 1990). The magnocellular system indirectly influences the parvocellular system by pressuring the latter in the course of the reading process. As one reads, there occurs a series of fixations followed by saccades or short rapid eye movements. The magnocellular deficit theory proposes that the larger system is stimulated by the saccades and the parvocellular system by the fixations. Dyslexia occurs when there is inhibition in the magnocellular system, consequently suppressing activity in the parvocellular system. While a number of psychologists and writers have accepted the magnocellular deficit theory, there have also been counterproductive results. For instance, in a review of contrast sensitivity studies which support the magnocellular deficit theory, Skottun (2000) found the studies which are consistent with the theory are outnumbered by studies that disprove it. An explanation behind the conflicting results is the lack of definite parameters to diagnose dyslexia. One author has alleged that the confirmability of the magnocellular deficit theory is confined to only one subtype of dyslexics (Borsting et al. 1996, as cited in Skottun 2000). 1.4 Auditory Processing in Dyslexia Another alternative explanation to dyslexia does not discount the deficit as phonological in nature but sees it more as one that stems from an auditory deficit in temporal processing. This theory is based on Tallal (1980) who proposed that children who are poor readers have difficulty processing brief or rapidly changing acoustic events whether used in speech or not. Hence, children find it difficult to judge the temporal order of nonspeech tones presented but stop-consonant-vowel syllables as well. This deficit interferes with their overall speech perception which is crucial to normal development of language, in turn, a fundamental requirement in reading. Tallal and colleagues arrived at this hypothesis after studying children with language impairments. When presented with high and low tones at long (400ms) and short (50 ms) interstimulus intervals (ISIs), the children were found unable to make temporal order judgments (TOJ). Tallal (1980) found that compared to normal readers, dyslexics performed poorly when presented long ISIs. From this observation, Tallal made an inference that dyslexics have a non-linguistic deficit in temporal resolution of rapidly changing auditory stimuli which impairs speech perception. Tallal also inferred that this deficit underlies the phonological problem. Studies which replicated Tallals work had mixed findings. Reed (1989, as cited in Ramus 2003) found that when using stop consonants and tones, dyslexics performed poorly compared to normals in making TOJs but performed equally with normals when presented with steady state vowels. Other studies lent support and contradiction to Tallals hypothesis. For instance, Mody, Studdert-Kennedy, and Brady (1997) concluded that dyslexics suffered from speech discrimination deficits rather than TOJs. In sum, evidence suggesting a direct link of temporal processing deficit to dyslexia has not been established. The auditory disorders that are observed in individuals with dyslexia are not particularly rapid or temporal in nature. These disorders are restricted to a subset of the dyslexic population, and have little influence on the development of phonology and reading. It therefore seems that the phonological deficit that is characteristic of dyslexia can arise in the absence of any auditory disorder, with the most severe auditory impairments nevertheless acting as aggravating factors (Ramus 2003). 2. Does dyslexia exist? There is also some debate on whether it is meaningful to speak of dyslexia as a distinct disorder in relation to other individuals classified as poor readers. If it can be proven that there is no significant difference among individuals diagnosed with dyslexia and your average or garden-variety poor reader, then it would make sense to question whether to study dyslexia at all. 2.1 Difference between dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers Gough and Tumner (1986, as cited in Siegel 1992) introduced the concept of the garden-variety poor readers in order to separate dyslexics from poor readers found to be poor in language, listening, verbal knowledge, decoding skills or pronunciation language. The authors differentiated dyslexics from the poor readers by diagnosing them as low in decoding skills but not long in listening. Behind this differentiation is the definition of reading disability based on an aptitude-achievement discrepancy (Stanovich 1991). There were children who were observed to be poor readers but perform well in other skills. On the other hand, there were poor readers who perform poorly in intellectual skills. This discrepancy criterion made the key assumption that: poor readers with a high aptitude (based on IQ test scores) were neurologically and cognitively different from poor readers with a low IQ. Hence, clinically, the term dyslexic came to mean only children with significant discrepancy in reading ability and intelligence. The discrepancy criterion is the basis of legal statutes governing special education practice in the U.S. and elsewhere. Academically, research definitions of dyslexia use this criterion widely. Dyslexia is officially diagnosed using the discrepancy criterion in the ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders (World Health Organisation 1993), and to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV [DSM-IV]. Before a child or adult is diagnosed as dyslexic, his or her reading achievement must be considerably lower than what is expected of him or her by age and IQ score. Valtin (2010) concludes that using this criterion, dyslexia is then defined as a medical, eetiological concept of specific reading impairment in children of normal intelligence, due to genetic or neuropsychological deficits'(p. 3) while normal reading disability occurs in children tested as having subnormal intelligence. The operationalisation of the discrepancy concept has been critiqued as a reification of something that has not been substantiated empirically (Stanovich 1994). The basic assumption is that a child or adults intellectual capacity is the norm for determining reading underachievement. Hence, the degree of discrepancy of reading ability from IQ was judged as meaningful, in the almost total absence of empirical evidence (Stanovich 1994, p. 581). Children with reading disabilities were categorised as RD-D or reading-disabled with IQ discrepancy (dyslexics) and RD-N (reading-disabled without IQ discrepancy (poor readers). Supporters of the discrepancy criterion argue that differentiation among poor readers assists in determining which learning interventions suit groups of reading-disabled children. Because dyslexics suffer from reading disorders without showing measurable signs of intellectual weakness, their needs are different from those who read poorly because of low IQ, socioeconomic disadvantage, health problems, and others. There are many however who question its usefulness in diagnosis because dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers experience the same weaknesses in spelling and reading (Valtin 2010). Moreover, the task of differentiating children with reading disorders into dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers is a largely arbitrary one (Rice and Brooks 2004) because it may be diagnosed under one method but not in another. Because there is no clear-cut definition of dyslexia, it has been considered a construct to refer to descriptive characteristics and not due to any cognitive dysfunct ions (Rice and Brooks 2004). 2.2 Diagnosing differences between dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers It is also relevant to review existing literature and empirical data to conclude that it is scientifically possible to distinguish which children are dyslexics and which are garden-variety poor readers. While some findings have pointed to noticeable differences between dyslexics and poor readers, they are mixed and cannot be considered unequivocal evidence to suggest differences in both groups. Rice and Brooks (2004) listed several studies that suggested moderate differences in the performance of dyslexic and poor readers on a few reading-related tests but these differences are overrun with similarities in performance of the same groups in tests measuring reading-related characteristics such as reversal errors in alphabet, digital sequencing errors, spelling of sight vocabulary, phonemic segmentation, and pseudoword reading. Moreover, studies (Fawcett et al 2001, Jorm et al 1986, as cited in Rice and Brooks 2004) have also found that garden-variety readers had lower scores than dyslexics in the areas of rhyme task, memory span, segmentation, and pseudoword repetition. Badian (1994) conducted an experimental study to secure support for the treatment of dyslexia as a separate entity by proving that dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers differ significantly in cognitive skills which are reading-related. Using 110 children subjects grouped into three dyslexic, garden-variety poor readers, and good readers, Badian (1994) found that it is empirically sound to differentiate dyslexics from garden-variety poor readers. While nonword reading and phonological awareness among dyslexic and garden-variety poor readers were both low in comparison to good readers, the study found that dyslexics had unique weaknesses in phonological coding of graphic stimuli and automatic visual recognition, consistent to Stanovichs phonological-core variable-difference model of dyslexia. Aaron (1989) also found differences between dyslexics and non-dyslexic poor readers in an experimental study on reading comprehension but not on word reading. Using two groups of primary-level poor readers, one group diagnosed as dyslexics (normal IQ scores) and the other as NSRD (nonspecific reading-disabled) or those having below normal IQ scores. The dyslexics were inferior than other two groups in terms of spelling and decoding, were more context-dependent when it came to word recognition, and did the worst on inferential comprehension. Ellis, McDougall, and Monk (1996) had somewhat contradicting results with Aaron (1989). Using four groups dyslexics (mean IQ 118), normal readers (mean IQ 107), and garden-variety poor readers (mean IQ 80), and precocious readers (mean IQ 126) the study measured reading accuracy as a measure of reading ability. They concluded that dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers had insignificant differences in decoding skills, consistent with Siegels (1992) claim and Stanovichs (1994) assertion. Moreover, unlike Aarons (1989) earlier finding, the poor readers obtained lower scores on comprehension of text and listening comprehension compared to dyslexics. The lack of scientific rigour in some of the psychometric tests and research on differentiation has also been criticised. Two control groups are required to undergo such experiments. Controlling for confounding variables in the tests is also difficult. Researchers need to take note of demographic and psychometric measures to establish validity of the findings (Chiappe et al. 2001, as cited in Rice and Brooks 2004). While Aaron (1989) and Badian (1994) gathering encouraging results that support differentiation, they also accepted several methodological issues with their experiments. First, the definitions were not uniformly used. There were considerable age differences in the sample of normal readers and garden-variety poor readers as well as the type of experimental design used. 2.3 Relationship of intelligence and dyslexia The discrepancy-based criterion in diagnosing dyslexics is largely because of a few prominent and highly gifted dyslexics known in history. Hence, dyslexia has come to be known as a disorder afflicting individuals who are otherwise intelligent but have difficulty reading. However, as Siegel (1992) explains, there is absolutely no scientific data suggesting that only intelligent people have dyslexia or that people considered of low intelligence cannot suffer from dyslexia. The reason why level of intelligence is used to isolate individuals having reading programs is that the IQ score is the best measure of someones intellectual capacity. Hence, people with a high IQ can be said to have greater intellectual capacity than those who have lower IQ. In the context of the reading-disabled, a dyslexic is someone who cannot perform up to their maximum potential because of neurobiological or genetic factors. Intelligence scores also

Comparing Nature in Wordsworth’s Ruined Cottage, and Coleridge’s Rime o

Comparing the Representation of Nature in Wordsworth’s Ruined Cottage, and Coleridge’s Rime of the Ancient Mariner For most poets of the Romantic Age, nature played an invaluable role in their works. Man’s existence could be affected and explained by the presence and portrayal of the external nature surrounding it. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge are no different from the other Romantic poets, and their works abound with references to nature and its correlation to humanity. Specifically, Wordsworth’s â€Å"The Ruined Cottage† and Coleridge’s â€Å"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner† share the theme of nature affecting man, although essential differences exist in their ideas regarding how it affects man. These two works are also similar in that they use a storyteller frame to both deliver and reinforce these ideas. In order for the reader to fully appreciate the representation of nature in these two particular poems, it is necessary to supply a little background on each poet. Wordsworth reigns supreme in the nature tradition. His poetry makes tribute to nature in conjunction with examining the human state, while maintaining that the relationship between the two is unbreakable. In his book English Poetry of the Romantic Period, critic J.R. Watson claims â€Å"the finest of Wordsworth’s nature poetry explores the relationship between [man and the world seen in the spirit of love], in the attempt to demonstrate the power of nature in the rescuing of the individual mind from degradation, materialism, selfishness, and despair† (114). Crediting nature with the answer to life, Wordsworth’s philosophy reveals that there can be no greater truth than that found in the simplicity of nature. He pulls from ... ...ompany, Inc., 2000. 422-38. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. â€Å"Biographia Literaria.† The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Romantic Period. 7th ed. Ed. M.H. Abrams. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2000. 468-486. Harding, D. W. â€Å"The Theme of ‘The Ancient Mariner.’† Coleridge: A Collection of Critical Essays. Ed. Kathleen Coburn. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967. 51-64. Watson, J.R. English Poetry of the Romantic Period. New York: Longman, Inc. 1985. Wordsworth, William. â€Å"The Ruined Cottage.† The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Romantic Period. 7th ed. Ed. M.H. Abrams. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2000. 259-70. Wordsworth, William. â€Å"Preface to Lyrical Ballads.† The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Romantic Period. 7th ed. Ed. M.H. Abrams. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2000. 238-251.

Interesting Sociology Essay Topics Essay

Sociology essays deal with the study of human social behavior in a society, thus, it is quite interesting for the students who are interested in human psyche but boring for those who don’t like studying their species. By and large, essays on sociology are mostly based on informative and argumentative style of writing, the argumentative sociology essay demands to work on thesis while essays on the sociology of knowledge are mostly assigned to the students in the informative arena. Whether it is argumentative or informative essays, one has to develop a topic that can grab the attention of the reader in no time and this is not such an easy task. While developing a topic for sociology essay, on should remember the nature of the subject, that is it deals with human behavior, psychology, humanities and social science. Thus, the topic should be as such which revolves around these subjects. Following are some of the recommended sociology essay topic for the students who are not able to select a good topic for their assignment. 1- Youth addiction to alcohol – Causes and concerns 2- Comparison between the children brought up in Filipino and Europe 3- What is and should the role of politicians in socializing through campaigning? 4- Merits and demerits of media for a society? 5- How cross cultural media transformation destroys the culture of a particular society? 6- Internet and its implications on a society. 7- Diffusion of innovation in European culture. 8- Critical comparison between sociology and anthropology 9- Homosexuality – crucial warning to our society 10- Views about organ transplantation in our society 11- What are the causes of increasing street crimes in our society? 12- What does mean to be a single parent in a conservative society? 13- Comparison between marriages and live-in? 14- Life in rural areas and life in a metropolitan city 15- Increasing materialism increases the depression in a society 16- In spite of such an advanced means of communication people are increasingly going for solitude. 17- Adoption and its consequences for an adopted child 18- How does divorce effects on the minds of the children 19- Comparison between materialistic and a spiritualistic person 20- Living a life as an eternal bachelor 21- Women empowerment in a conservative society 22- Challenges a working women faces in our society 23- Comparison between inferiority and superiority complex 24- Living whole life in a prison 25- Origin of sociology as a science

Litotes

Litotes Litotes Litotes By Maeve Maddox A rhetorical term for understatement is litotes: litotes [LY-tuh-teez] (noun): understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative of the contrary (as in â€Å"Hes not a bad ballplayer†)- Merriam-Webster. Litotes can be used to express a variety of meanings. When the translators of the KJV have Paul of Tarsus identify himself to the Roman officer as â€Å"a citizen of no mean city† (Acts 21:39), it is not to suggest that Paul was being modest. The words are â€Å"no mean city,† but the meaning is â€Å"a very important city.† Here are other examples of the use of litotes to emphasize the importance of something by using a negative to express the contrary: The history of American freedom is,  in no small measure, the history of procedure.  (i.e., â€Å"to a great extent†) The disparity in government funding is  not easy  to remedy. (i.e, â€Å"extremely difficult†) Litotes is also used to convey modesty, sarcasm, contempt, admiration, and veiled disapproval, as in the following examples: You’ve managed to wreck the car and destroy the front porch all in one go. Good job! He’s no Einstein. Oprah gave every guest a car? Not too shabby. This day-old lobster bisque is not entirely inedible. Understatement has been a popular form of expression in English since the earliest times. For example, the Old English epic Beowulf begins with a gory description of Grendel’s slaughter of thirty of Hrothgar’s thanes. Grendel seizes the thanes and carries some of the bloody bodies back to his lair, â€Å"exulting.† Later, Grendel returns to wreak more slaughter. Says the poet, â€Å"[The monster] did not mourn for it.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:70 "Home" Idioms and ExpressionsWhen to Form a Plural with an ApostropheThe Difference Between "Un-" and "Dis-"

Abortion Essays (670 words) - Human Pregnancy, Midwifery

Abortion Essays (670 words) - Human Pregnancy, Midwifery Abortion Wim Van de Keere English comp I Prof. Fjordbotten A matter of life and death About 29 years ago, Norma McCorvey, who then adopted the pseudonym Jane Roe, became the lead plaintiff in a lawsuit to challenge the strict anti-abortion laws in Texas. The case was appealed to the Supreme Court, which handed down its controversial ruling on January 22, 1973. The decision legalized abortion in all fifty states and sparked a sociopolitical debate that remains charged to this day. However, McCorvey never had an abortion and eventually gave away the child for adoption. In 1995, she converted to Christianity and became a fervent adversary of abortion. The woman who had fought for women to have the freedom to decide what to do with their bodies came to see pro-abortionists as killers. Lets first take a look at some of the circumstances in which people may decide to abort a child. I think its a misconception to think that people will only opt for abortion in cases of unplanned parenthood. Todays technology enables us to see at a very early stage of the pregnancy if the baby is in good health. If tests show that something is wrong and that the baby will never be able to survive or will only grow to be a certain age, parents often have a very difficult decision to make. In these cases, I think that parents definitely have the right to opt for abortion. I find it sad that, while those people go through a living hell, they are judged for their actions, often by people who obviously havent been in their situation and judge them as killers who took an innocent life. Its far more complex than that. Unwanted pregnancies remain the main reason to opt for abortion. Here again, the matter is very complex and there isnt a solution that is valid in every situation. If the pregnancy is the result of rape or sexual abuse, there should be no discussion. The victim has the right to choose for abortion. Mostly, unwanted pregnancies are the result of unsafe sex. In these cases, I feel that the mother has the right to decide what she is going to do with the baby, as young men often dont want to take the responsibility for their actions. If they do, then the couple should decide together. An important aspect of the decision is financial security. If you decide to have the child, you have to be certain that you will be able provide clothes and food for it. If not, I think that abortion is an acceptable solution. Hopefully, these young people will have learnt a valuable lesson from this predicament. The support of parents - or lack thereof - also plays an important role in the decision-making process. If they are supportive and want to help the young mother to the best of their abilities, the decision becomes a lot easier. I dont think, however, that abortion should be seen as some kind of safety valve. People confronted with unwanted pregnancies shouldnt think that they can have sex without contraceptives and if they get pregnant, theyll just have the fetus aborted. Thats a totally wrong and regrettable mentality that I see too often among young people nowadays. And if not to prevent pregnancy, they should at least use contraceptives to prevent attracting STDs. Undoubtedly, there will always be people who are in favor of abortion and others who are against it. Religious beliefs will keep playing an important role in the debate. However, I dont think that people who opt for abortion should be seen as killers. If you are not sure that you will be able to provide a secure future for the child or if the pregnancy is a result of sexual abuse, there are sufficient grounds for abortion. I feel that people who do opt for abortion shouldnt be judged for their actions. To form an opinion of people, one should have all the facts. Unfortunately, that is often not the case.

National Victory in the Spanish Civil War Essay

National Victory in the Spanish Civil War - Essay Example The war offered both Hitler and Mussolini an opportunity to test their equipment and military strategies. Hitler also expected Francos assistance in any future German war. Concerned about Hitler’s actions, British and French officials began to discuss an alliance with Soviet Union. But Soviet leader Joseph Stalin felt threatened by Hitler’s military actions and did not think British and French would protect his country. Hence in 1939, the Soviet-German nonaggression pact was revealed where each side agreed not to attack the other. The Spanish Civil War officially came to an end on April 1, 1939, without any reconciliation. Franco began a reign of terror aimed at the physical liquidation of all his potential enemies. Concentration camps were set up and tens of thousands were shot. Mass executions continued until 1944. Meanwhile, World War II was under way, and many of the volunteers took up arms against fascism again (Taylor). Despite almost universal support for the Republic amongst British intellectuals and widespread support amongst the working classes, the British government did not act. It was not only that they feared anything that might lead to a wider war in Europe but also that, British businessmen and a majority of the British Cabinet felt more sympathetic with Franco. Large corporations in America also worked on Francos behalf. In France, the governments sympathies were with the Republic, but the government was weak and feared any acts that might alienate its own military. However, after providing t he Loyalist government with a score of planes, France decided to propose an international policy of Non-Intervention that would bar all foreign aid to Spain (Miller). In fact, if Franco and the rebellious generals had been denied Italys and Germanys aid in the early days of the war, the rebellion might well have collapsed.

Article Review of Terrorism, Airport Security, and the Private Sector Essay

Article Review of Terrorism, Airport Security, and the Private Sector - Essay Example However, subsequent to the attack, the government instituted a federalized security system. The present system characterized by tightened security is, however, more expensive and must be assessed in terms of its overall cost effectiveness compared to a public-private approach to security. This paper will provide a succinct review of Seidenstat’s article â€Å"Terrorism, Airport and the Private Sector†. The September 11, 2001 tragedy occurred when hijacked airplanes were smashed into massive buildings in the US. This attack elicited great concern for airport security, which had long been a joint initiative between the private and public sector in the US. The attack laid emphasis on pubic operations within the country’s airports, causing the reassessment of best practices with regard to airport security in order to deter terrorist attacks. The process of the airport security system included screening of passengers and luggage for explosives and weapons, checking of baggage and cargo for explosives, management of admission to secure air operations regions, clearing, as well as badging of personnel with admission to restricted areas in the aircraft of airport and deployment of air marshals on domestic flights (Seidenstat, 2004). However, these security functions were marred by major glitches that deterred effectiveness. Areas of weaknesses included controls for airport access and passenger and carry-on luggage screening. For instance, in 1987, FAA tests showed that screeners missed at least 20% of the potentially perilous objects it utilized in the tests. Some of the reasons behind the ineffective airport security system included the limitations of the stakeholders; the FAA, airports and the airlines, which made the events of September 11 quite easy. For instance, the laws were ineffectively managed deterring effective oversight of airport security. The fragmented system also failed to assign responsibility, thereby giving way for gaps in effec tive security management, for instance, enabling passengers smuggle weapons on board. Moreover, the erratic nature of communication between the FAA and the institutions under its mandate also worsened the security crisis. According to Seidenstat (2004) underinvestment in security was also to blame for the inconsistency experienced in airport security; for instance, airlines and airports considered the added costs of tightened security as unjustifiable in the business milieu. Their profit considerations hampered their adoption of tightened airport security. Even private firms that contracted airport security services were forced to keep their costs low in order to be awarded contracts; consequently, the services provided were also insufficient since tightened security typically requires hefty expenditures, which airlines and airports were unwilling to cover. However, after 9/11, the face of airport security has improved as the legislative and executive arms of the government moved sp eedily to revamp airport security systems to heighten their security level. This involved upgrading the existing system by requiring airlines to improve their security contracts with private security firms and requiring the FAA to enforce stringent screening standards. A major recommendation was altering the focal point of security control to airport managers so as to achieve a fully integrated system, but this system may not